Malay-Archipelago Ethnic Diversity in Mecca: Jawi Scholars in the Book of al-Jawāhir al - Ḥisān by Zakariyyā

This study focuses on the ethnic diversity of the Malay Archipelago in Mecca. The object of this study is the compilation of Jawi scholars (ulema) in Mecca as documented in the book al-Jawāhir al - Ḥisān, written by Zakariyyā Bīlā (1329 - 1413/1911-1992), a prominent Arab scholar originating from the Bilah lineage in Labuhanbatu, North Sumatra. Zakariyyā Bīlā provided a comprehensive record of the scholars and teachers he met or heard in Mecca (299 people), Medina (21 people), and Jeddah (7 people) over the period spanning from the 19th century to the mid-20th century. The study results indicate that Indonesian scholars who pursued professional opportunities in the Middle East were exclusively located in Mecca, with no presence in Medina over those two


Introduction
Historically, the extensive intellectual network between Indonesians and Haramain scholars from the 17th to the 19th century has been welldocumented.Academics interpret this phenomenon within the framework of Islamic revitalization in the Middle East, which subsequently spread to the Archipelago, and the connection between the works of Indonesian scholars and scientific traditions in the Middle East.So far, many studies have examined the prominent Indonesian scholars in the 17th to 19th centuries, specifically from Hamzah Fansuri to Nawawi Banten. 1 Nevertheless, information regarding the identity of the Indonesian scholars, particularly those from the 20th century, and their record in Mecca has not been extensively revealed.Arab historians have compiled a list of Ḥaramayn scholars from the 20th century, notably including more Indonesian scholars than in the previous century.
One of the 20th-century historians who compiled biographies of Ḥaramayn scholars was Zakariyyā Bīlā (1911-1992), an Arab scholar of Indonesian descent, precisely from the Bilah region, Labuhanbatu, North Sumatra.He was known as a close friend of al-Shaykh Yāsīn al-Padānī (1919-1989), one of the last Jawi scholars from Padang who became Sheikh in Mecca.In the book al-Jawāhir al- Ḥisān (2006), Bīlā created a list of Indonesian scholars who were considered Ḥaramayn and Ḥijāz scholars, which he compiled in the mid-20th century. 2 In comparison to biographical works of This study is important to show that Arab historians have found a shared Malay cultural identity among Meccan scholars despite the diverse ethnic backgrounds from the Malay-Archipelago region.According to Laffan, they constitute an ecumene, a single community built by a complex and heterogeneous network of people. 11Arab historians, such as al-Baytar, Abū al-Khayr, al-Dahlawi, Bīlā, 'Abd al-Jabbar, and al-Mu'allimi, commonly refer to them as Jawi scholars (al-Jāwī) denoting their origins from the regions of Java or Malay Archipelago, rather than exclusively Java.The terms seen as representative of the scholars' identity from the Malay Archipelago region and their role in establishing the Malay language as a lingua franca are of scholarly significance.Andaya refers to this phenomenon as "leaves from the same tree." 12Historians, including Bīlā in his work al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān, expressed their concern with the shared identity of being a Jawi scholar.
Bīlā's writing stands out significantly compared to biographical scholars produced by other Arab historians, as it encompasses the most extensive compilation of names of Indonesian scholars.One of the motivating factors for Bīlā was the similarity between his ethnic identity and that of the Indonesian scholars.Bīlā, an Arab historian of Indonesian descent, will be further explained in the discussion.His father came from Bilah, Labuhanbatu, North Sumatra. 13This study confirms that the same ethnic identity as Jawi scholars encouraged Arab historians of Indonesian descent, such as Bīlā, to record the traces of Indonesian scholars in the scholars' biographies he compiled.
It is important to understand that the term Archipelago (Nusantara) or Jawi scholars in this article pertains to the ethnic and geographical elements, specifically people who were born in Southeast Asia or the Archipelago (comprising Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam, Patani/Southern Thailand, and the Southern Philippines), or born in Mecca to parents from the Indonesian Archipelago.Their parents subsequently pursued a career as teachers in Mecca until their passing or returned to the Archipelago. 14The researcher has not included scholars from outside the Archipelago, such as those from Mecca, Medina, Yemen, Egypt, and other regions, who are mentioned in Bīlā's records as having arrived, pursued careers, and even passed away within the Archipelago.The primary focus of this study is due to the genealogical and geographical considerations of the Archipelago.One of the Arab scholars who had a career in the Archipelago, for example, was 'Abdullāh bin Ṣadaqah bin Zaynī Daḥlān (1291-1363), a scholar born in Mecca who died in Garut, West Java. 15He was the grandson of Aḥmad Zaynī Daḥlān (1817-1886), the grand mufti of Mecca, author of the book Muhimmāt al-Nafāis. 16Even though he died in the Archipelago, 'Abdullāh bin Ṣadaqah was not of Indonesian descent.

Jawi Scholars in Mecca
The precise historical time of Indonesians coming to Ḥaramayn remains uncertain.The primary purpose of their arrival in the holy land was to undertake the Hajj, the fifth pillar of Islam.The difficult and long journey requires the pilgrims not only to pause but also to stay there.The Indonesians staying in Mecca engage in more than just undertaking the Hajj trip and enhancing their spiritual and religious devotion.Some also dedicated their time to pursuing religious studies and acquiring livelihood opportunities.
Insufficient evidence is available regarding the precise number of Archipelago scholars who became teachers in houses and madrasas in Mecca or those who attained the esteemed role of head teachers (shaykh) at the Grand Mosque.The available data on the quantity of Indonesians who became teachers in Mecca during the 19th century is notably comprehensive.An Ottoman government report in 1303/1884-5 stated that there were 270 teachers in that year from various countries.A Dutch advisor who had visited Mecca, C. Snouck Hurgronje (1857-1936), considered this number doubtful, considering it excessive in quantity.It is related to payments provided by the government for knowledge development.Snouck Hurgronje believes the total number is only around 50-60 people. 17In comparison, Azra stated that the average estimate for scholars in Mecca in the 17th and 18th centuries was between 100-200 people.Even if that number is added to the number of scholars who only teach in madrasas and houses, the number will be quite large. 18his explanation elucidates that the number of Indonesians who pursued careers as teachers in Mecca was very large during the nineteenth century.This phenomenon is distinct from the preceding century or two, which reportedly did not exhibit comparable numbers.Several researchers have presented a list of Indonesian scholars from the 17th and 18th centuries who had contact with Mecca, as evidenced by data indicating fewer numbers than the above data.Azra highlighted the people named al-Sinkīlī, al-Maqassarī, and 'Abd al-Shakūr Banten, who were students of al-Qushāshī and Ibrāhīm al-Kūrānī in Medina in the 17th century.In the 18th century, there was a significant increase in Indonesian scholars who became teachers in Mecca.This trend was particularly prominent among people from regions such as Minangkabau, Palembang, Patani, Betawi (Batavia), and Banjar (Kalimantan). 19  al-Mulk al-Wahhāb (2009).It cannot be separated from the increase of the number of the Archipelago peoples going to Mecca.In the mid-19th century, approximately 2000 pilgrims came to Mecca, doubling to reach 12,000 pilgrims by the end of the century. 21Some data shows that in specific periods, the number of Indonesians returning home is less than the number of people coming there.It is not only related to the many obstacles experienced by Indonesians during their journey, such as dying at sea or in Ḥaramain, but also to the large number of those who choose to settle in the holy land for trading and studying. 22ence, it is understandable that there was a rise in the count of Indonesians who became teachers in Mecca, particularly throughout the 18 Azra, The Origins of Islamic Reformism in Southeast Asia. 19Zacky Khairul Umam, "Seventeenth-Century Islam Teaching in Media: The Life, Circle, and Forum of Aḥmad Al-Qushāshī," Qiraat, no.6 (2016): 22; Azra, The Origins of Islamic Reformism in Southeast Asia.| 7 period from the 19th century to the early 20th century.They provided instruction to fellow Indonesians using Malay or regional languages, such as Javanese, Sundanese, and others.It can be seen from the circulation of the number of books written by Indonesian scholars who taught in Mecca using various Indonesian languages, such as Malay, Javanese, and Sundanese.Their books were printed in Mecca and Egypt at the end of the 19th century. 23he data on the increase in the number of Indonesian scholars who became teachers in Mecca has been recorded by various Arab historians.These historians include both contemporaries, such as Mirdād Abū al- Khayr  (d.1924) and al-Dahlawī (1869-1936), who lived during the 19th century, as well as historians of the 20th century, such as 'Umar 'Abd al-Jabbār (1902-1970), 'Alī Maghribī (1914-1996), Zakariyyā Bīlā (1911-1992), and others.One of the historians who documented Indonesian scholars living in Mecca during his era was Bīlā, a Meccan historian of Indonesian descent who extensively engaged with Indonesian scholars in his studies.Therefore, the next section will explain Bīlā and the book al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān, which recorded the list of Indonesian scholars in Mecca from the 19th century to the early 20th century.

About Zakariyya Bīlā
His full name is al-Shaykh Zakariyyā bin al-Shaykh' Abdullāh bin al-Shaykh Ḥasan Bīlā or Bīlah al-Indūnīsī.He was born in Mecca on Friday night, 7 Jumadil Ula 1329/6 May 1911.He learned to read the Qur'an from his parents.His father, 'Abdullah Bīlā bin Ḥasan bin Zaynal (1296-1356/1879-1937), was a scholar born in Bilah, Labuhanbatu, North Sumatra, who came to Mecca with his brother, al-Shaykh Abū Bakar Tambusai, before 1916.Bīlā then obtained an opportunity to be a teacher at Madrasah al-Ṣawlatiyyah, where he got the trust to teach students across all educational levels, including primary, secondary, and higher levels, until 1958.He also taught in Masjidil Haram and Ma'had al-Su'ūdī.He also conducted halaqah (circle) teachings in Bāb al-Ziyādah.Many students come from various countries, such as the Arabian Peninsula, Africa, and Asia.Specifically, from Southeast Asia, they came from Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Brunei Darussalam.Among the Muslim scholars, some came to the Ḥarām land along with their successors.Therefore, it is appropriate that there is a reason that requires me to collect their biographies based on my ability.I will mention the news circulating about the majesty of their power and high position as a reminder of my weak self and a reference for people who tell stories to themselves to understand the journey of their lives. 29lā stated that the purpose of compiling the book al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān is a reminder to him as well as a reference for understanding the life journey of these great scholars.Therefore, Bīlā focused on the biographies of scholars and shaykh in Haramain and Jeddah.The total number is 327 scholars, consisting of scholars from Mecca (299), Medina (21) and Jeddah (7).Hundreds of scholars come from various countries, such as Arab countries (Mecca, Medina, Ta'if, Yemen, Damascus/Syria, Aleppo, Amman, Bahrain and others), Africa (Egypt, Timbuktu, Morocco, Algeria, Sudan, Algeria, Tunisia, Nigeria and others), Asia (India, Malay-Archipelago, Pakistan and others) and areas in East Asia such as Bukhara, Daghestan, Uzbekistan and others.According to the editor, Bīlā prioritized the scholars at Madrasah al-Ṣawlatiyyah in Mecca, both teachers and students.This madrasa is an educational institution around the Grand Mosque, which an Indian cleric, Shaykh Raḥmatullāh al-Hindī, founded.
Bīlā is quite detailed in mentioning the year of birth and/or year of death of each scholar.He also explained the peculiarities of their scientific nature and thinking.He explained the biographies of Meccan scholars and those who came to Mecca and settled there in the 20th century.The scholars who came to Mecca came from various regions in the Islamic world.He explained the number of scholars' friends, places of study, teachers' names, students, and their works.He also discussed scholars who were not his contemporaries but people who had left great works.Most scholars mentioned in this book were affiliated with Madrasah al-Sawlatiyyah, serving as educators, colleagues, and students.It is worth noting that a few of these people were not the author's contemporaries.He also listed scholars' tendencies regarding schools of faith, Sufism, and Islamic jurisprudence.In addition to his experience, he also used several other biographical books that have been compiled by previous scholars, especially the book Nathr al-Durar fi Tadhyil Nazm al-Durar fi Tarajim' Scholars' Makkah min al-Qarn al-Thalith' Ashar ila al-Qarn al-Rabi' 'Ashar, the works of 'Abdullah bin Muḥammad Ghazi and other biographical books. 30he next paragraph will explain one of the interesting things about the book al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān.It means that there are many names of scholars who come from the Malay-Archipelago region, especially Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.Some of them studied at the Grand Mosque, some taught, although many also returned to their home country.The Indonesian scholars live in Mecca, and none live in Medina.Of the 299 names on the list of Mecca scholars, 65 are Indonesian scholars.

Archipelago Scholars in the Book al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān
As the explanation above, Zakariyya Bīlā in al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān mentions 65 names of Archipelago scholars.Due to their origins, the Indonesian scholars came from three countries, namely Indonesia (53 people), Patani (Southern Thailand) (6 people), and Malaysia (6 people).The following are details of all Archipelago scholars in Bīlā's works: In Table 1, there are probably two names of Sumatran scholars who refer to the same person, namely Junān Ṭayyib.Bilā mentioned that he originated from Padang.However, the subsequent list of scholars includes a repetition of the same name that he was from Minangkabau.Upon reviewing Bīlā's description regarding Junān's role as a pioneer in establishing the madrasa for Indonesians in Mecca, it likely refers to the same person.However, Bīlā mentioned a slightly different year of death.

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In addition to the information above, the data indicates that Archipelago scholars are predominantly represented by scholars from Sumatra, with a total of 32 people.Conversely, there are only 13 scholars from Java, followed by four from Kalimantan and four from Nusa Tenggara.The dominance of Sumatran scholars in Mecca may be related to the long history of this area since the beginning of the Islamization of the Archipelago over the centuries.It is also related to some of the earliest Sumatran scholars recorded as having activities in Mecca, such as Hamzah Fansuri, Shams al-Din al-Sumatra'i, and 'Abd al-Ra'uf al-Sinkili in the 17th century, then continued by 'Abd al-Samad al-Palimbani who was a teacher in Mecca in the 18th century.However, what is quite surprising about Bīlā's list is that there is no single name of an Indonesian scholar from Sulawesi.As is known, scholars from Sulawesi were only found in the 17th century, namely Sheikh Yusuf al-Maqassari and 'Abd al-Wahhab Bugis from the 18th century.In addition to the explanation above, it is noteworthy to mention that among the list of Indonesian scholars listed by Bīlā in his work al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān, only one Indonesian scholar emerged from the 18th century.This person is identified as Muḥammad Arshad al-Banjarī (1122-1272/1710-1812), coming from Banjar, a region located in South Kalimantan.Muhammad Arshad al-Banjarī was recognized as the earliest Banjar scholar who studied and taught in Mecca before returning to his land in 1772.Some of his books, such as Tuḥfah al-Rāghibīn, were written in Javanese characters, making him well-known in the Archipelago. 31n the 19th century, 29 scholars existed in Bīlā's list.However, the number of scholars in the 20th century exceeded this amount, reaching 34 people.The significant number of scholars during these two periods can be attributed to Bīlā's attention to prioritizing the scholars he met and those who lived contemporarily with him.Bīlā, who was born in 1911, listed not only senior scholars who were born at the end of the 19th century but also scholars who were the same age as him (born in the early 20th century) and even several scholars who were much more junior than him, such as Dr. Tabrani bin' Abd al-Rabb Riau (born 1941) and Sayf Layzan Tungkal Jambi (born 1957).His attention to contemporary scholars tends to contrast the name of the Archipelago scholars from the 18th century, which only had one person, Muḥammad Arshad al-Banjarī.
In addition, the list that Bīlā made probably refers to scholars with a prominent reputation in Mecca.Therefore, apart from the names of prominent 18th-century scholars such as Muḥammad Arshad al-Banjarī, Bīlā also listed several other prominent scholars from the 19th and 20th centuries, either who had died or were still alive when Bīlā was a child, although it was not too much.This phenomenon is evident in the case of Muḥammad Nawawi Banten (1230-1314/1815-1896), a prominent scholar of the 19th century who passed away well before the birth of Bīlā.However, because of Nawawi Banten's reputation for outstanding productivity, especially among Indonesian scholars in Mecca, Bīlā included his name in the book al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān.Nawawi Banten is known as Sayyid Scholars Hijaz, who wrote over 100 books in Arabic, most of which were printed in Mecca and Egypt. 32In addition to Nawawi Banten, Bīlā also included other prominent Indonesian scholars in his list, including Aḥmad Khatib al -Minangkabau  (1276-1334/1859-1916), teacher of the great scholar who founded Muḥammadiyah, K.H. Aḥmad Dahlan (1868-1923) and Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), K.H. Hasyim Asy'ari (1871-1947). 33Bīlā also mentioned the name of Mukhtar ' Atarid Bogor (1278-1349/1861-1930), a Sundanese scholar who was a teacher at the Grand Mosque and wrote several Sundanese works that were printed in Mecca and Egypt. 34There was also the name Aḥmad Nahrawi al-Jawi Banyumas (1276-1346/1859-1927), known as Kiai Muhtaram.He had several works, such as Qurrah al-'Uyūn li al-Nāsik al-Muṭī' bi al-Funūn. 35able 2 is a list of Indonesian scholars who were born in the 18th to 20th centuries and are listed in the book al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān: As can be seen in Table 2, Bīlā in al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān tends to highlight Archipelago scholars born in the 20th century like himself.Thus, compared to only one 18th-century scholar and 29 19th-century scholars, he listed 34 scholars born in the 20th century.This contemporary period and ethnic ties may have prompted Bīlā to focus on fellow archipelago people, who he was also a descendant of Archipelago descent.
In addition, the data also shows that the number of Archipelago scholars who studied and taught at the Grand Mosque and several educational institutions in Mecca in the 20th century was still quite large, at least until the mid-20th century.This number shows that despite the shift in the religious-political situation in Saudi Arabia in 1924, from traditionalist Sunni to Salafi/Wahabi, it did not dampen the interest of Archipelago students from various regions to continue studying and working in Haramain.Therefore, the next section will focus on the issue of ethnicity and the socioreligious situation that influenced Bīlā in listing the Archipelago scholars.

Bīlā, Ethnicity and Jawi Scholars in Mecca
As Although the Malay-Archipelago ethnic or Jawi community in Mecca had a variety of languages and cultures, they were aware of their common genealogical and regional roots.They felt united as a Malay-Archipelago ecumene in the holy land amidst cosmopolitan cultural hybridity.Hence, the careful efforts of all groups to enforce ethnic boundaries that emphasized the differences among them could not hide the fact that they belonged to the same roots. 37European colonial efforts to generate inter-group rivalry through economic competition and politicization of ethnic identity in the Straits of Malacca region since the 17th century apparently did not work when the Jawi community was in Mecca.They studied Islamic science in Mecca and united as Jawah immigrants with other scholars from various countries, such as India, Africa, Egypt, Uzbekistan, Malabar, and many others.It was a cosmopolitan life of Muslim immigrants who brought ethnic and linguistic diversity to the center of Islamic worship in the world.
| 21 Therefore, the list of Archipelago scholars made by Bīlā in his book, al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān, shows the significance of the Malay-Archipelago ethnic identity that took an important role in the Islamic intellectual tradition in Mecca.Of course, the significance of Archipelago scholars in Mecca did not emerge suddenly.Many factors have contributed to the increasing number of archipelago scholars becoming teachers in Mecca compared to the previous few centuries, as shown in Bīlā's list.It may not only be related to the scientific capacity of these scholars but also to the steady and increasing arrival of Archipelago people to Mecca, even setting a record in 1913-14 when half of the total pilgrims came from Indonesia. 38In addition, the increase in the intensity of the Archipelago people also happened along with the more accessible transportation of Hajj after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the improvement of the economic level of the natives in the Dutch East Indies, and the greater influence of Islam through educational institutions founded by Hajj alums in the land downwind. 39Equally important was the Turkish government's subsidization of the living expenses of the Jawi and other communities during their stay in Mecca.It, for example, was seen in 1326/1908 reportedly providing a subsidy of 1 pound (junayh) 'Uthmani for the Jawi people. 40nfortunately, when entering the mid-20th century, especially in the last four decades, the reputation of Archipelago scholars in Mecca has slowly declined.Scholars from the Archipelago, especially Indonesia, had recently switched their teaching careers at various universities in Saudi Arabia in the field of non-Islamic studies, some of which tend to be ultra-conservative and militant, others tend to be progressive and moderate. 41There were not many Archipelago scholars who were teachers in the Haramain anymore.The works produced by Archipelago scholars in Mecca were also decreasing.One of the reasons may be the change in the religious-political situation in Ḥaramain.Socio-religious conditions in the Hijaz at the beginning of the 20th century were increasingly pressured by the development of the Salafi/Wahhabi ideology brought by Muḥammad bin' Abd al-Wahhāb (1703-1792).Mecca, under Ottoman Turkish rule since the 16th century, was shaken by the political power of the Hashimid rulers and the Salafi/Wahhabi Sa'ud dynasty under British support.As is well known, this religious sect tends to be puritanical, considering the teachings of other Muslims heretical. 42he emergence of the Salafi/Wahhabi groups led to various accusations of heresy and polytheism directed at traditional Muslim religious Sufistic practices in Mecca and Medina, such as the practice of pilgrimage, tawasul, istigatsah, maulid of the Prophet, and veneration of objects around the Kaaba, facing the Prophet's tomb when praying, seeking blessings from the former pious and others. 43The sacred tombs, Khadijah's house, Abu Bakr's birthplace, and the zawiyah where the tariqah practitioners gathered were destroyed.The practice of various schools of Tariqah and Sufism was eliminated.In fact, according to some reports, about 18 Tariqah sects were active in the Hijaz in 1887. 44The practitioners chose to flee to other regions in Arabia.Ibn Sa'ud, as Saudi ruler, basically did not want to disrupt the Hajj and disturb the large number of Muslim immigrants living in Mecca.At the same time, however, Ibn Sa'ud had to satisfy the Salafi/Wahhabi scholars as his main supporters in homogenizing religious views and eliminating what he considered to be polytheism. 45The decline in Archipelago scholars in Mecca cannot be separated from the dynamics of socio-religious developments that hit the Hijaz.The difference between the religious ideology of the Archipelago scholars and the Salafi/Wahhabi ideology adopted by the Saudi government is one of the reasons why Jawi scholars have been increasingly eliminated from academic activities in Mecca until now.It is a socio-religious dynamic that reflects the strong interference of political power over the dominance of religious understanding.

Conclusion
The explanation above shows that the diversity of the geographical background of Archipelago scholars influenced the ethnic diversity of Jawi scholars in Mecca.This Malay-Archipelago ethnic diversity is reflected in the list of names of Archipelago scholars made by Zakariyyā Bīlā in his book, al- Jawāhir al-Ḥisān.Zakariyyā Bīlā listed scholars and teachers in Mecca (299 people), Medina (21), and Jeddah (7) whom he met or heard about between the 19th and mid-20th centuries.There were 65 names of Archipelago scholars.It is quite a large number compared to the list of names of Archipelago scholars made by previous Arab historians.Bīlā, an Arab historian of Bilah descent, Labuhanbatu, North Sumatra, seems to pay great attention to the names of Archipelago scholars.It shows that ethnicity was a strong motivation for Bīlā to list the names of Archipelago scholars in greater numbers than previous Arab historians.A list of Archipelago scholars demonstrates the significance of ethnic Malay-Archipelago scholars who took an important role in the Islamic intellectual tradition in Mecca amidst the decline of their reputation from the mid-20th century to the present.Although this study has revealed the importance of the contributions of Archipelago scholars in the intellectual landscape of Islam in Mecca, this research has some limitations.First, the heavy reliance of data on one primary source, the book of al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān, may lead to historical bias and interpretations that are limited to Zakariyyā Bīlā's perspective.Second, this study has not thoroughly mapped the scientific influence of Archipelago scholars on local and international communities, which requires further studies with a multidisciplinary approach and more diverse sources.Third, this study has not examined in depth the social, political, and economic factors that may have influenced the migration and reputation of Archipelago scholars in Mecca.Therefore, the conclusions drawn should be seen as a starting point for more extensive and in-depth research on this subject in the future.

Diagram 1 :
The country of origin of the Archipelago scholars in Mecca in al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān Diagram 2: Ethnic of Archipelago scholars from Indonesia in al-Jawāhir al
Al-Bayṭār, for example, recorded the name 'Abd al-Ṣamad al-Palimbanī in his work, Ḥilyah al-Bashar. 20Then, over time, the number of Indonesians who became teachers in Mecca increased.In his work titled al-Mukhtaṣar min Kitāb Nashr al-Nūr wa al-Zuhr (1986), Abū al-Khayr reported approximately 16 Indonesian scholars in the 19th century.This number is comparatively lower than the 23 names of Indonesian scholars recorded by 'Abd al-Sattār al-Dahlawī in his book Fayḍ

Table 1 :
List of Archipelago scholars in al-Jawāhir al-Ḥisān by Bīlā

Table 2 :
List of Archipelago Scholars based on Year of Birth